Intersections of Educational Psychology and the Teaching of Reading: Connections to the Classroom by Kathie Good
Knowing where one's philosophy of teaching and methodology is empowering. This chapter explores foundational theories of learning to give names to things previously unnamed and to improve instruction.
An idea that goes back to ancient times is that the mind as a muscle. It was supported by Plato, Socrates, and Thorndike (and me).
Generally speaking educational theories are grounded in associationism which grounds all learning as associative cognitive experiences or learning is never isolated, but dependent on previous learning experiences. (Sounds as if it supported the use and building of background knowledge.)
In addition to the theorist above and Skinner, Piaget too stands out. Piaget came up with a four step cognitive developmental model. Beginning with sensorimotor stage birth to about age 2; a child learns about himself or herself and his or her surroundings by using motor and reflexive actions in his or her interactions: thinking is present-minded; preoperational stage early stages of talking through age 7; a child can think of things not immediate or, rather, from the past; starts to use symbols to represent objects; as well, objects are often personified in this stage; children in this stage must still be able to physically examine the world around them; concrete operational stage grade 1 to early adolescence; children begin to think abstractly; can make rational judgments; mayor may not need to physically examine the world around them to make judgments; formal operational stage adolescence; the person in this stage can make decisions effectively, as well as being capable of both deductive and hypothetical thinking/reasoning; is open to a variety of ways in which to learn.
When students do not learn a new concept teachers need to ask if the student lacks the ability, maturity, or if they lack the skills
When children are having difficulty learning a new concept one should ask if they have the maturity to learn the new concept or if they have the ability to learn the concept. Children's minds are actively constructing knowledge--why not transacting with the world to create knowledge? (They are not empty vessels as Locke suggested).
Lev Vygotsky and his socially meaningful activity is directly related to cognitive development theory that learning is directly related to the social interactions that occur within the learning environment. The difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Vygotsky thought that children internalized a behavior (learned) because it was first was experienced or observed by the child of others and then it became part of the internal knowledge of the child. Vygotsky thought that learning impacts development. The place between where the child can independently learn and what the teacher instruction is (or should be) the zone of proximal instruction.
Lev Vygotsky
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hx84h-i3w8U
Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:
Major themes:
- Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).
- The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
- The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html
Edward L. Thorndike or the Father
of Educational Psychology
What comes from the Puzzle Box? "The Law of Effects states that responses that are closely followed by satisfying consequences become associated with the situation and are more likelmy to recur when the situation is subsequently encountered" (p. 169).
This was applied to people and from this is the theory of connectionism. Connectionism stresses the learning practice of connection new ideas, knowledge, or learning to existing memory in the cognitive storage. Thorndike applied his theory to reading. He created a list of the most commonly used words (30,000) in reading and writing. Today it is applied to vocabulary (is it also applied to sight words?)
"Thorndike also put forth the idea of active learning. Active learning encourages students to become the force of their learning by interacting with not only their peers, but the learning materials as well" (169).
B.F. Skinner using what came before proposed behavior theory. Operant conditioning and positive reinforcement transformed education which prior rewarded rote memorization and was extremely punitive.
Skinner believed in five main steps to learning;
- fear of failure
- lack of directions
- lack of clarity in directions,
- positive reinforcement was not used enough or with enough immediate feedback
- task contained too many large step
Siegfied Englemann took the idea of direct instruction and scripted it for math and reading.
Albert Bandura and social learning theory. Bandura also believes that learning does not happen in isolation. Learning happens through connections and connecting new ideas to old, but also has a greater impact when social interaction is involved in the learning environment.
As reading teachers we teach using the theories of Plato, Aristotle, Thorndike, Piaget, Vygotsky, Skinner, and Bandura. We are involved in a centuries old conversation. The strategies and methods developed from these theorists have created a sturdy pedagogical foundation.
Chapter 9 The Brain and
Reading by S. Russell Vaden
Before Reading Activity:
Purpose for Reading: Am I a Romantic Luddite?
I sometimes think that my insertion of Azar Nafisi's Reading Lolita in Tehran (2003) is poetic as I am relating a memoir in books to the theories of learning and teaching reading. Other times I think it is for the theatrics of it all, but compare these two ideas, "A great novel heightens your senses and sensitivity to the complexities of life and of individuals, and prevents you from the self-righteousness that sees morality in fixed formulas about good and evil...(p. 133)" to brain-based learning that support the idea of a bottom-up theory of reading or "that readers extract information directly from to
Just as important is to understand how the brain does work and how this knowledge will help reading instruction. This chapter is a presents the neurological foundation of reading are the root foundation for reading and does not discount social, cultural, or language-based derivatives. (DISCLAIMER)
THE DEVELOPING BRAIN
(By what developmental process does the brain prepare itself for learning to read?)
Is reading organic? What structures and functions are needed to read or are needed to be prepared to read? (connectedness of neuronal pathways so the brain may complete complex tasks)
Questions to guide teachers about how the mechanisms and processes within the brain are related to reading:
- Is there a set of mental activities that a person must acquire, prerequisite to reading skill?
- Is there a clearly defined way in which that set of mental activities or abilities takes shape within the conscious brain?
- Is there a developmental pattern or sequence involved in readying the brain for using those mental activities?
- Is there a correlation between brain activity and the acquisition of reading throughout the maturational process of early childhood?
As the brain matures it enables the learner to learn, but reading is a nature nurture combination. But this chapter focuses on brain development (first three years of life where the brain growth is dramatic, growing about 65% or to 90% the size of an adult's brain.) Children at 30 months to 5 years generally have twice as many neuronal connections as an adult brain. It is believed that this overproduction prepares the child for learning and adaptation in any setting (culture?). This is thought why it is easier to learn things when one is young. One needs exposure to experiences to reinforce and keep these pathways; when unused the neural connections are prunned from non-use.
What experiences are needed to give children the optimal opportunity to learn to read?
Children need rich experiences that help their neural pathways make lasting connections.
What experiences are needed to give children the optimal opportunity to learn to read?
Children need rich experiences that help their neural pathways make lasting connections.
Neural pathways--a complex set of connections among related neurons in the brain, responsible for generation and regulating brain activity; related to reading, information and skill are acquired, stored, and retrieved through the intricate networking of neuronal connections
Pruning--a neurological process in which the brain regulates and alters its own form and function by reducing the number of overproduced or weakened pathways and replacing them with more efficient configurations (USE IT OR LOSE IT)
LEARNING AND THE BRAIN
There is no one part of the brain that is responsible for learning. Many functions occur simultaneously.
If I’m reading this correctly, there are the physical parts of the brain that does the work needed to see, decode, and comprehend. Then there are the metacognitive strategies one does that are done in another part of the brain, and as one does all of this one is shaping one’s brain.
LEARNING AND THE BRAIN
There is no one part of the brain that is responsible for learning. Many functions occur simultaneously.
If I’m reading this correctly, there are the physical parts of the brain that does the work needed to see, decode, and comprehend. Then there are the metacognitive strategies one does that are done in another part of the brain, and as one does all of this one is shaping one’s brain.
Lobes--area or regions of the neocortical brain, which have specialized functions and determinants; in the activity of reading, each of the four primary loves of the cerebral cortex is believed to contribute a particular function that adds to cumulative gain of reading skill
Neocortex--the outermost layer of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain; the part of the brain that is most involved in higher-order functions such as sensory perception, generation of motor commands, spatial reasoning, conscious thought, and in humans, language
Occipital lobe--the part of the cerebral cortex region of the brain that lies in the backmost part of the head, just above the neck; the part of the brain believed to be most significantly involved in the processing and understanding of visual images and the patterns of written words
Parietal lobe--the part of the cerebral cortex region of the brain that lies in the topmost center portion of the head; the part of the brain believed to be most significantly involved in regulating sensor and motor information
Temporal lobe--the part of the cerebral cortex region of the brain that lies adjacent to the temple region of the head; the part of the brain believed to be most significantly involved in functions related to memory and speech/language
Frontal lobe--the part of the cerebral cortex region of the brain that lies directly behind the forehead; the part of the brain believed to be most significantly involved in higher order metacognitive activities such as planning, organizing, problem solving, selective attention, and logical reasoning
PROBLEMS WITHIN THE READING BRAIN
Reading diabilities are most frequently defined in a neurobiological fashion (more nature than nurture).
First children with reading disabilities have significant problems with word recognition
Second they have difficulties using phonics or sound letter relationships (decoding) for learning new words.
These two reading difficulties are found in 17% or school age children and 40% of adults. (Why not 17% too? Does this problem increase with age?)
In word recognition, previously learned words and phrases, and to associate spoken words with written language scientific findings show a connection to the occipital and parietal regions of the brain.
Reading instruction can change how the brain works and its structure (Vygotsky was right!)
PROBLEMS WITHIN THE READING BRAIN
Reading diabilities are most frequently defined in a neurobiological fashion (more nature than nurture).
First children with reading disabilities have significant problems with word recognition
Second they have difficulties using phonics or sound letter relationships (decoding) for learning new words.
These two reading difficulties are found in 17% or school age children and 40% of adults. (Why not 17% too? Does this problem increase with age?)
In word recognition, previously learned words and phrases, and to associate spoken words with written language scientific findings show a connection to the occipital and parietal regions of the brain.
Reading instruction can change how the brain works and its structure (Vygotsky was right!)
Neurobiological--related to the cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional units that process information and mediate behavior
Brain-based learning--an instructional designed model based on the idea that learning activities are ore effective if they occur in an atmosphere that is compatible with the way the brain naturally engages in its dynamic process in order to learn and use new information and skills
And now to address the opening comments of mine regarding this chapter--I totally misinterpreted the chapter when I first read its opening and its conclusion. I need to calm down all my romantic notions and pay attention to the science as it's fascinating. I need to learn more about how to help readers with physiological brain issues and what to do for them to change how their brains work.
Below is a link to parent tps from Reading Rockets
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